Protecting Victims of Human Trafficking: Harmonizing the Implementation of the Palermo Protocol in Indonesia and Nigeria
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63306/96qg7v75Keywords:
Human Trafficking, Legal Harmonization, Legal Protection, Palermo Protocol, Victim ProtectionAbstract
Human trafficking remains a persistent transnational crime in many developing countries, notably Indonesia and Nigeria, where structural poverty and limited human-capital opportunities contribute to vulnerability. This study comparatively examines how both countries have incorporated the Palermo Protocol into their national legal and institutional frameworks and evaluates the effectiveness of victim-protection measures. Employing a normative-comparative design with descriptive-qualitative analysis, the research reviews primary legislation and implementing regulations (notably Indonesia’s Law No. 21 of 2007 on the Eradication of Trafficking in Persons and related implementing regulations, and Nigeria’s Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Enforcement and Administration Act (TIPPEA), revised 2015) alongside institutional arrangements such as Indonesia’s inter-agency task force and LPSK, and Nigeria’s National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP). Findings indicate both states have formally aligned domestic law with Palermo principles and established dedicated institutions, yet practical effectiveness is constrained by uneven inter-agency coordination, resource shortfalls, administrative barriers to restitution/compensation, and socio-economic and cultural vulnerabilities. The study concludes that legal harmonization must be matched by strengthened institutional capacity, simplified access to victim remedies, sustained funding, and community-level interventions to translate international standards into meaningful protection for victims.
Downloads
References
Adelakun, O. J., Mohammed, F. A., Olaniran, A. O., & Odugbemi, T. H. (2025). Economic and geopolitical push factors, and migration tendencies in Nigeria: The intervening role of institutional quality. Scientific African, 30, e02955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02955
Agwu, P. (2025). Re-Envisioning Antihuman Trafficking Response in Nigeria Through an Anticorruption Lens. Journal of Human Trafficking, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2025.2559537
Aja, U. A. (2024). Merchants of terror: Proliferation of small arms and light weapons and human security challenges in Nigeria. African Security Review, 33(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2023.2270532
Al-Tammemi, A. B., Nadeem, A., Kutkut, L., Ali, M., Angawi, K., Abdallah, M. H., Abutaima, R., Shoumar, R., Albakri, R., & Sallam, M. (2023). Are we seeing the unseen of human trafficking? A retrospective analysis of the CTDC k-anonymized global victim of trafficking data pool in the period 2010–2020. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284762. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284762
Ali, M., Muliyono, A., Sanjaya, W., & Wibowo, A. (2022). Compensation and restitution for victims of crime in indonesia: Regulatory flaws, judicial response, and proposed solution. Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2069910
Amune, M. S. (2025). Control and Regulation of Human Trafficking in Nigeria : A Legal Framework Analysis. East African Journal of Law and Ethics, 8(1), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.37284/eajle.8.1.2609.IEEE
Anggraini, D. D. (2024). Pengaturan anti-terorisme dalam hukum positif Indonesia dan hukum pidana Islam: Suatu studi perbandingan. Muqaranah, 8(2), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.19109/41e2km10
Ardiansyah, I., Widyawati, A., Utari, I. S., & Fadhil, M. (2025). Taking Restitution Seriously? IJCLS (Indonesian Journal of Criminal Law Studies), 10(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.15294/ijcls.v10i1.19636
Ardin, A. J., & Harefa, B. (2021). Pemenuhan Hak Anak Korban Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang. Jurnal Suara Hukum, 3(1), 174–196. https://doi.org/10.26740/jsh.v3n1.p174-196
Ariadne, E., Pratamawaty, B. B., & Limilia, P. (2021). Human trafficking in Indonesia, the dialectic of poverty and corruption. Sosiohumaniora, 23(3), 356–363. https://doi.org/10.24198/sosiohumaniora.v23i3.30989
Baehaki, K., & Hadis, T. R. (2023). Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Saksi dan Korban Dalam Sistem Peradilan Pidana Indonesia. Jurnal Media Hukum, 11(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.59414/jmh.v11i1.451
Bello, I. S., & Okonjo, F. A. (2025). Analyzing the Effectiveness of NAPTIP ’ s Enforcement Mechanisms in Combating Human Trafficking in Nigeria. Law and Economy, 4(1), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.56397/LE.2025.01.03
Benuf, K., & Azhar, M. (2020). Metodologi Penelitian Hukum sebagai Instrumen Mengurai Permasalahan Hukum Kontemporer. Gema Keadilan, 7(1), 20–33. https://doi.org/10.14710/gk.2020.7504
Chambers, R., Greenbaum, J., Cox, J., & Galvan, T. (2022). Trauma Informed Care: Trafficking Out-Comes (TIC TOC Study). Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 13. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319221093119
Cheong, H., Lyons, A., Houghton, R., & Majumdar, A. (2023). Secondary qualitative research methodology using online data within the context of social sciences. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231180160
Demerew, K., Faboye, S., & Edodi, S. (2025). Towards polycentric federalism: assessing federal institutional design in multiethnic African states. Journal of Institutional Economics, 21, e9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744137425000037
Emerinwe, O. M., Scent, G. A. T., & Chima, C. C. (2020). The Menace of Women Trafficking and the Implications on the Nigerian Society: A Decisive Approach to Halting It. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(4), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.7176/RHSS/10-4-15
Eviningrum, S., Hartiwiningsih, & Jamin, M. (2019). Developing Human Rights-Based Legal Protection Model on Victims of Child Trafficking in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Globalization of Law and Local Wisdom (ICGLOW 2019), 80–83. https://doi.org/10.2991/icglow-19.2019.20
Fahmi, Z. (2025). Preventing Violence Against Women and Children in Mandailing Natal Regency: A Criminological Perspective. Saree: Research in Gender Studies, 7(2), 152–167. https://doi.org/10.47766/saree.v7i2.6265
Fallo, M. R., Kiling, I. Y., Wijaya, R. P. C., & Yulianto, J. E. (2025). Social rehabilitation process of human trafficking victims in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia: gathering insights from the professionals. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/29949769.2025.2469912
Farisin, M. S., & Fazha, A. P. (2025). The Fight Against Human Trafficking in Indonesia’s Fisheries Industry. Jurnal Lemhannas RI, 12(4), 509–530. https://doi.org/10.55960/jlri.v12i4.960
González, E. A. (2024). Nigerian Migrant Women and Human Trafficking Narratives: Stereotypes, Stigma and Ethnographic Knowledge. Social Sciences, 13(4), 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13040207
Goździak, E. M., & Vogel, K. M. (2020). Palermo at 20: A Retrospective and Prospective. Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2020.1690117
Gunawan, Y., Haque, A. Y. I., Rahma, M. A. M., & Andrian, N. J. (2022). UN Palermo Protocol’s Implementation on the Legal Protection of Street Children Trafficked in Indonesia. Jurnal Hukum Novelty, 13(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.26555/novelty.v13i2.a20653
Hidayat, R., Irawan, N., & Aryani, L. (2024). A scoping analysis of collaborative governance in preventing and dealing with the crime of human trafficking in Indonesia. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Developmen, 8(8), 1–24.
Hidayat, T., Luthviati, R. D., & Jenvitchuwong, S. (2022). Disharmonization of Supreme Court Regulations in Material Judicial Rights. Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 2(3), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v2i3.34
Idemudia, U., Okoli, N., Goitom, M., & Bawa, S. (2021). Life after trafficking: reintegration experiences of human trafficking survivors in Nigeria. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 17(4), 449–463. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMHSC-03-2021-0023
Ishola, A. V., & Olumuyiwa, M. F. (2024). The Activities of Ritual Killings and the Responses of National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in Fighting Cross Border Human Trafficking in Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology (IJISRT), 9(5), 124–131. https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY255
Kehinde, A. O. (2025). Human Trafficking as a Global Problem and the Efficacy of NAPTIP in Tackling Human Trafficking in Nigeria. Orbeliani Law Review, 3(1), 105–124. https://doi.org/10.52340/olr.2024.03.01.07
KemenPPPA. (2025, July 30). Peringati Hari Anti TPPO, Kemen PPPA dan IOM Serukan “Kita Semua Bisa Lawan TPPO.” Siaran Pers Nomor: B-000/SETMEN/HM.02.04/7/2025. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/siaran-pers/peringati-hari-anti-tppo-kemen-pppa-dan-iom-serukan-kita-semua-bisa-lawan-tppo
Kinnish, K., & Hopper, E. K. (2024). Trauma-informed intervention with survivors of human trafficking. In L. Dryjanska, E. K. Hopper, & H. Stoklosa (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on human trafficking: Theory, research, prevention, and intervention. (pp. 199–228). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000379-010
Malah, Y. F., & Asongu, S. A. (2021). An empirical analysis of human trafficking in an era of globalization (MPRA Paper No. 110134; African Governance and Development Institute (AGDI) Working Paper). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110134
Martin, Y., & Runturambi, A. J. S. (2024). Upaya Pencegahan Pekerja Migran Indonesia (PMI) Nonprosedural sebagai Bagian Perdagangan Orang Melalui Pengawasan Keimigrasian. Syntax Literate ; Jurnal Ilmiah Indonesia, 9(5), 3268–3285. https://doi.org/10.36418/syntax-literate.v9i5.15738
Mika’il, U., & Muhammad, M. (2020). Nigerian trafficking in persons report: Lessons from policy implementation. CenRaPS Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 76–87. https://doi.org/10.46291/cenraps.v2i1.11
Naibaho, N. (2023). Victim Protection and The Dynamic Situation of Human Trafficking: Indonesia Experience. Indonesian Journal of International Law, 20(4), 667–688. https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/ijil/vol20/iss4/3
Negara, T. A. S. (2023). Normative Legal Research in Indonesia: Its Originis and Approaches. Audito Comparative Law Journal (ACLJ), 4(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.22219/aclj.v4i1.24855
Nugroho, Y., & . S. (2021). Institutions, Outputs and Outcomes: Two Decades of Decentralization and State Capacity in Indonesia. Southeast Asian Economies, 38(3), 296–319. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae38-3b
Nwosu, I. A., Eteng, M. J., Ekpechu, J., Nnam, M. U., Ukah, J. A., Eyisi, E., & Orakwe, E. C. (2022). Poverty and Youth Migration Out of Nigeria: Enthronement of Modern Slavery. Sage Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221079818
Ogunniyi, D., & Idowu, O. (2022). Human trafficking in West Africa: An implementation assessment of international and regional normative standards. The Age of Human Rights Journal, 19, 165–185. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v19.6851
Okech, D., Aletraris, L., & McLaughlin, K. R. (2025). Human Trafficking Prevalence Research: Lessons and Practical Guidance from the Prevalence Research Innovation Forum (PRIF). Journal of Human Trafficking, 11(4), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2025.2567784
Okeshola, F. B., & Adenugba, A. A. (2018). Human Trafficking: A Modern Day Slavery in Nigeria. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 8(2), 40–44. https://doi.org/10.30845/aijcr.v8n2a5
Okorie, M. M., & Okeja, U. (2024). Prosecuting human traffickers in Nigeria : victim-witnessing and community-oriented challenges. Trends in Organized Crime. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-024-09548-y
Okoye, C. O., Okolie, E. Q., & Abonyi, A. U. (2025). Legal and Institutional Framework for Trafficking in Persons and Protection of Victims in Nigeria. EduLaw : Journal of Islamic Law and Yurisprudance, 7(1), 01–34.
Oktavian, A. (2024). International law and human trafficking: Prevention and control in Indonesia. Russian Law Journals, 12(1), 577–585. https://www.russianlawjournal.org/index.php/journal/article/view/3736
Ornelas, S., Camilo, C., Csalog, R. A., Hatzinikolaou, K., & Calheiros, M. M. (2023). Social schemas about human trafficking involving girls and women: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 73, 101873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2023.101873
Ramli, F., Nashril-Abaidah, T., & Ramli, S. I. (2025). Policy Coordination in Combating Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review of Institutional Frameworks and Multi-Agency Collaboration. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(11), 2553–2564. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100205
Saffanah, T., Rasito, R., Putra, D. A., & Yuliatin, Y. (2024). Strengthening Law Enforcement and Public Awareness to Combat Human Trafficking in Indonesia. Al-Ahkam: Jurnal Ilmu Syari’ah Dan Hukum, 9(2), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.22515/alahkam.v9i2.9686
Sari, Y. A. P. (2021). Understanding human traffickers in Indonesia: characteristics, perspectives, and pathways to prevention [Doctorate by Research, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT)]. https://doi.org/10.25439/rmt.27601854
Sari, Y. A. P. (2025). Individuals Involved in Human Trafficking in Indonesia. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89893-8
Shah, H. J. (2025). The Palermo Protocol: An Ineffective Treaty for Holding Human Traffickers Criminally Accountable and Protecting Victims of Human Trafficking. Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law, 41(3), 439–463. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/677065
Sinaga, H. (2024). Restitution in Social Reintegration of Human Trafficking Victims: An Islamic and Indonesian Criminal Law Perspective. Fikri: Jurnal Kajian Agama, Sosial Dan Budaya, 9(2), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.25217/jf.v9i2.4918
Solim, J. (2019). The Accommodation of ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in Persons (ACTIP) in Indonesia Regulation. Fiat Justisia: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum, 13(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v13no2.1680
Suchecki, J. A. (2019). Remedies for Victims of Human Trafficking Under the Palermo Protocol and United Nations Basic Principles: A Case Study Analysis. Notre Dame Journal of International & Comparative Law, 9(1), 126–154. https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndjicl/vol9/iss1/8
Surtees, R. (2017). Our Lives. Vulnerability and Resilience Among Indonesian Trafficking Victims. NEXUS Institute.
Susilawati, I. Y., Karyati, S., & Ulum, H. (2024). The Eradication of Human Trafficking: What Can We Learn From East Lombok District? Jurnal IUS Kajian Hukum Dan Keadilan, 12(2), 393–405. https://doi.org/10.29303/ius.v12i2.1373
Sweileh, W. M. (2018). Research trends on human trafficking: a bibliometric analysis using Scopus database. Globalization and Health, 14(1), 106. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0427-9
Twis, M. K., Flores, D., Pereda, E., & Gonzalez, V. (2025). A Systematic Review of Empirically Evaluated Trauma-Informed Care Principles in Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking. Journal of Forensic Social Work, 9(2), 94–118. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.1936-9298.2025.9.2.94-118
Uduji, J. I., Okolo-Obasi, E. N., & Asongu, S. (2019). Corporate social responsibility in Nigeria and multinational corporations in the fight against human trafficking in oil-producing communities (No. WP/19/056; African Governance and Development Institute (AGDI), Working Paper). https://hdl.handle.net/10419/205026
Ukhami, E. I., Halidu, A., & Achudume, L. A. (2024). The role of the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in combacting human trafficking in Nigeria. Journal of Political Discourse, 2(1), 118–128. https://www.jopd.com.ng
Uzochukwu, G. C. (2021). Barriers in Implementing a Unified Collaborative Policy to Combat Female Sex Trafficking in Edo-State, Nigeria [Doctoral Dissertations, Walden University]. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/12875
Wahyudi, A. A., Suryani, W. I., & Fahmi, Z. (2025). Hukuman Mati dan Hak untuk Hidup di Indonesia: Tinjauan HAM terhadap Undang-undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2023. SOSMANIORA: Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Humaniora, 4(3), 880–889. https://doi.org/10.55123/sosmaniora.v4i3.5924
Wahyuni, F. (2019). Causes of Radicalism Based on Terrorism in Aspect of Criminal Law Policy in Indonesia. Jurnal Hukum Dan Peradilan, 8(2), 196–213. https://doi.org/10.25216/jhp.8.2.2019.196-213
Walk Free. (2023). Modern slavery in Nigeria: Global Slavery Index 2023 Country Study. Minderoo Foundation. https://www.walkfree.org/global-slavery-index/downloads
Zulfiani, A., Arya, M. G., Wibowo, N. A., Parwitasari, T. A., & Sawani, Y. (2025). Human Rights Protection and Criminal Liability in the Smuggling of Indonesian Migrant Workers. Fiat Justisia: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum, 19(2), 219–236. https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v19no2.4220
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Affan Muhammad Hasibuan, Hamza Naziru Zakari, Aziz Ananta Halim Nasution, Maulana Muklis (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
